Introduction

In the 6th century BCE, a period marked by profound socio-religious introspection, great scholars like Confucius in China, Zoroaster in Iran, and Parmenides in Greece critiqued established religious norms, emphasizing ethical and moral values. India, too, witnessed the emergence of significant religious movements challenging the prevailing orthodoxy. Among these were Buddhism and Jainism, two religions advocating non-violence, ethical conduct, charity, and the idea that true happiness transcends materialism and ritualistic practices.

Buddhism, a major topic in historical and civil service examinations such as the UPSC, is crucial for understanding the socio-cultural and philosophical fabric of ancient and modern Asia. This article aims to provide an exhaustive overview of Buddhism, covering its origins, key figures, teachings, symbols, councils, texts, schools, and the factors influencing its spread and decline.

The Life of the Buddha

Early Life

Siddhartha Gautama, later known as the Buddha, was born in Lumbini, near modern-day Nepal, around the 6th century BCE. He was a prince of the Shakya clan, living a life of luxury and privilege under the protection of his father, King Suddhodana. The king, concerned that Siddhartha might renounce the world and pursue a religious life, kept him sheltered from the harsh realities of existence.

Despite the king’s efforts, Siddhartha eventually encountered the realities of aging, illness, and death during trips outside the palace. These experiences profoundly affected him, leading him to renounce his royal life and seek a path to overcome human suffering.

Renunciation and Enlightenment

At the age of 29, Siddhartha left his palace, wife, and newborn son to embark on a spiritual quest. He initially pursued extreme ascetic practices under various teachers but found these methods unsatisfactory. After nearly starving himself, he realized that extreme asceticism was not the path to enlightenment. He then adopted a more moderate approach, focusing on meditation and mindfulness.

Siddhartha attained enlightenment at the age of 35 under the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, India. Through deep meditation, he realized the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, which became the core of his teachings.

Teaching and Legacy

Following his enlightenment, Siddhartha, now known as the Buddha, spent the next 45 years teaching the Dharma (the truth of the path to liberation) and establishing the Sangha, a community of monks and nuns devoted to following his teachings. He emphasized the importance of ethical conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom as the path to liberation from suffering.

The Buddha’s teachings spread across Asia, influencing various cultures and societies. He passed away at the age of 80 in Kushinagar, India, achieving Parinirvana (final Nirvana) and leaving behind a profound legacy that continues to impact millions of people worldwide.

Core Teachings of Buddhism

The Four Noble Truths

The Four Noble Truths are the foundation of Buddhist teaching:

1. Dukkha (Suffering): Life is inherently unsatisfactory and involves suffering, from obvious physical pain to the subtle discomfort of unfulfilled desires.
2. Samudaya (Origin of Suffering): Suffering is caused by desire and attachment, rooted in ignorance and craving.
3. Nirodha (Cessation of Suffering): It is possible to end suffering by eliminating its cause, leading to Nirvana.
4. Magga (Path to the Cessation of Suffering): The Eightfold Path is the practical guide to overcoming suffering.

The Eightfold Path

The Eightfold Path provides a practical framework for ethical and mental development:

1. Right Understanding: Comprehending the nature of suffering and the path to liberation.
2. Right Intent: Cultivating intentions of renunciation, non-ill will, and compassion.
3. Right Speech: Engaging in truthful, harmonious, and non-harmful communication.
4. Right Action: Acting ethically, avoiding harm to others, and living a moral life.
5. Right Livelihood: Earning a living in a manner that does not harm others.
6. Right Effort: Cultivating wholesome mental states and avoiding harmful ones.
7. Right Mindfulness: Maintaining awareness of body, feelings, mind, and phenomena.
8. Right Concentration: Developing deep mental focus and tranquility through meditation.

The Three Marks of Existence

Buddhism teaches that all phenomena possess three fundamental characteristics:

1. Anicca (Impermanence): Everything is in a constant state of flux.
2. Dukkha (Suffering): The impermanent nature of existence leads to dissatisfaction.
3. Anatta (Non-Self): There is no permanent, unchanging self or soul in individuals.

The Five Precepts

For lay followers, Buddhism prescribes Five Precepts to guide ethical behavior:

1. Abstain from killing: Respecting all forms of life.
2. Abstain from stealing: Respecting others’ property.
3. Abstain from sexual misconduct: Engaging in responsible and respectful relationships.
4. Abstain from false speech: Practicing honesty and integrity in communication.
5. Abstain from intoxicants: Avoiding substances that cloud the mind and lead to unwholesome behavior.

Buddhist Symbols

Buddhist symbols play a significant role in representing and conveying the teachings and essence of Buddhism:

• The Dharma Wheel (Dharmachakra): Symbolizes the Buddha’s teachings and the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. The wheel’s eight spokes represent the Eightfold Path.
• The Lotus Flower: Represents purity and enlightenment, as it emerges untainted from muddy waters.
• The Bodhi Tree: The sacred tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment.
• The Stupa: A mound-like structure containing relics of the Buddha, symbolizing his presence and the teachings.

Buddhist Councils

The Buddhist Councils were crucial in preserving and standardizing the teachings of the Buddha. There were four major councils:

First Buddhist Council (483 BCE)

• Location: Rajagriha, Sattapani Caves
• Patron: King Ajatashatru of the Haryanka Dynasty
• President: Mahakassapa
• Objective: To compile and preserve the Buddha’s teachings, resulting in the creation of the Pitakas (Three Baskets):
  • Sutta Pitaka: Discourses of the Buddha
  • Vinaya Pitaka: Monastic rules
  • Abhidhamma Pitaka: Philosophical and doctrinal analysis

Second Buddhist Council (383 BCE)

• Location: Vaishali
• Patron: King Kalasoka of the Sisunaga Dynasty
• President: Sabbakami
• Objective: To resolve disputes within the Vinaya and address ten controversial points. This council marked the first major schism in Buddhism, leading to the formation of the Sthaviravadins (Elders) and Mahasanghikas (Great Community).

Third Buddhist Council (250 BCE)

• Location: Pataliputra
• Patron: Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Dynasty
• President: Mogaliputta Tissa
• Objective: To purify Buddhism from corruption and opportunistic factions. The Abhidhamma Pitaka was composed, and Buddhist missionaries were sent abroad to spread the teachings.

Fourth Buddhist Council (1st Century CE)

• Location: Kashmir, Kundalvana
• Patron: King Kanishka of the Kushan Dynasty
• Presidents: Vasumitra and Ashvaghosha
• Objective: To translate the Abhidhamma texts into Sanskrit and address doctrinal disputes, leading to the division of Buddhism into Mahayana and Hinayana sects.

Fifth Buddhist Council (1871 CE)

• Location: Mandalay, Burma
• Patron: King Mindon
• Objective: To recite and examine the Buddha’s teachings for any alterations or distortions. The entire recitation was captured in marble slabs at the Kuthodaw Pagoda.

Sixth Buddhist Council (1954 CE)

• Location: Kaba Aye, Yangon (formerly Rangoon), Burma
• Patron: Prime Minister U Nu
• Objective: To affirm and preserve the genuine Dhamma and Vinaya. The council involved monks from eight countries and took two years to complete, resulting in a comprehensive examination and correction of the Buddhist scriptures.

Buddhist Texts

Buddhism’s primary texts are written in Pali and Sanskrit and form the basis of its teachings:

Tripitaka (Pali Canon)

1. Sutta Pitaka: Contains the Buddha’s discourses and teachings.
2. Vinaya Pitaka: Details the rules and regulations for monastic life.
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka: Provides a detailed analysis of Buddhist doctrines and philosophy.

Dhammapada

A collection of sayings of the Buddha in verse form, offering practical wisdom and ethical guidance.

Milinda Panha

A dialogue between King Menander I (Milinda) and the sage Nagasena, addressing various aspects of Buddhist philosophy.

Buddhacharita

An epic poem by Ashvaghosha that narrates the life and deeds of the Buddha.

Lotus Sutra

A key Mahayana text that emphasizes the universality of the Buddha’s teachings and the concept of the Bodhisattva.

Heart Sutra

A short Mahayana text that concisely presents the concept of emptiness and the perfection of wisdom.

Diamond Sutra

An important Mahayana text that explores the nature of reality and the practice of non-attachment.

Mahayana Sutras

Include various texts central to Mahayana Buddhism, such as the Avatamsaka Sutra and the Pure Land Sutras.

Spread and Decline of Buddhism in India

Factors Contributing to the Spread of Buddhism

• The Buddha’s Charisma: The Buddha’s personal magnetism and ability to communicate profound truths in an accessible manner.
• Inclusivity: Buddhism’s rejection of caste distinctions and its open admission of people from all social backgrounds.
• Royal Patronage: Support from influential rulers like Bimbisara, Ajatashatru, Ashoka, and Kanishka, who endorsed and promoted Buddhism.
• Missionary Activity: Buddhist monks traveled extensively to spread the teachings to distant lands.

Factors Leading to the Decline of Buddhism in India

• Sectarian Division: The emergence of various sects, including Mahayana and Hinayana, led to doctrinal conflicts and weakened the unity of the Buddhist community.
• Corruption and Ethical Decline: Instances of moral and ethical decline within the Sangha diminished Buddhism’s appeal.
• Decline of Royal Support: The diminishing patronage from subsequent dynasties such as the Guptas affected Buddhism’s institutional support.
• Competition from Hinduism: The revival of Brahmanical traditions and the rise of Hindu philosophers and reformers contributed to the decline.
• Invasions and Political Instability: The invasions by the Huns and later Islamic armies disrupted Buddhist institutions and led to the destruction of monasteries and centers of learning.

Schools of Buddhism

Theravada (Hinayana)

• Meaning: “The Lesser Vehicle.”
• Scriptures: Pali Canon.
• Focus: Adheres closely to the original teachings of the Buddha, emphasizing monastic life, meditation, and personal enlightenment.
• Presence: Predominantly practiced in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia.

Mahayana

• Meaning: “The Greater Vehicle.”
• Scriptures: Sanskrit texts, including various Sutras.
• Focus: Emphasizes the Bodhisattva path, the ideal of achieving enlightenment for the benefit of all beings. Mahayana Buddhism includes a variety of philosophical schools and practices.
• Philosophical Schools:
  • Madhyamika: Founded by Nagarjuna, focusing on the concept of emptiness (shunyata).
  • Yogachara: Founded by Asanga and Vasubandhu, emphasizing the nature of consciousness and perception.
• Presence: Practiced in China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and Taiwan.

Vajrayana

• Meaning: “The Vehicle of the Thunderbolt.”
• Focus: Incorporates esoteric practices, rituals, mantras, and visualizations to achieve rapid enlightenment. It includes practices related to deities and complex rituals.
• Presence: Predominantly practiced in Tibet, Bhutan, Nepal, and Mongolia.

Buddhism vs. Brahmanism

Brahmanism, the predecessor of modern Hinduism, emphasizes Vedic rituals, the caste system, and the authority of the Brahmins. In contrast, Buddhism rejects the caste system and ritualistic practices, focusing instead on personal spiritual development and the alleviation of suffering. Buddhism’s emphasis on individual effort and ethical living contrasts with the Brahmanical focus on ritual and caste hierarchy.

The Eight Great Bodhisattvas

In Mahayana Buddhism, the Eight Great Bodhisattvas are revered figures embodying various aspects of enlightenment and compassion:

1. Manjushri: The Bodhisattva of Wisdom, often depicted with a sword and a lotus flower, symbolizing the cutting through of ignorance and the blossoming of wisdom.
2. Avalokiteshvara (Kannon/Kuan Yin): The Bodhisattva of Compassion, known for his boundless compassion and the ability to assist beings in suffering. Often depicted with multiple arms to help all beings.
3. Vajrapani: The Bodhisattva of Power and Protection, symbolizing the transformative power of wisdom and protection against obstacles.
4. Kshitigarbha: The Bodhisattva of the Earth, associated with guiding souls through the realms of suffering and helping beings in the afterlife.
5. Akashagarbha: The Bodhisattva of Wisdom and Purification, representing the purification of negative karma and the accumulation of wisdom.
6. Samantabhadra: Known for his Ten Great Vows and his embodiment of practice and virtue. He is often depicted riding an elephant, symbolizing the overcoming of obstacles.
7. Sarvanivarana Vishkambhin: The Bodhisattva who removes obstructions and hindrances on the path to enlightenment.
8. Maitreya: The Future Buddha who is expected to come to the world to restore the true Dharma and bring universal peace and enlightenment.

Conclusion

Buddhism, with its rich tapestry of teachings, practices, and historical evolution, offers a profound path for understanding and alleviating human suffering. From its origins in ancient India to its spread across Asia and its global presence today, Buddhism has influenced countless lives and cultures. Its teachings on the nature of suffering, the path to liberation, and the cultivation of wisdom and compassion continue to inspire and guide practitioners around the world.

The study of Buddhism not only provides insights into a major world religion but also offers valuable lessons in ethics, mindfulness, and the quest for inner peace. As Buddhism continues to evolve and adapt to contemporary contexts, its core principles remain a beacon of hope and enlightenment for those seeking to understand the nature of existence and the path to true happiness.