Sources of Chola Empire History

The Chola Empire’s history is primarily known through over 10,000 inscriptions engraved on copper and stone. These inscriptions mainly record endowments and donations made to temples by rulers and others. They also provide detailed information on land transactions, taxes (including both collections and exemptions), genealogy, wars, conquests, administrative divisions, local governance, land rights, and various taxes.

Copper plates containing royal orders further illuminate the empire’s history, including its political and social structure. Additionally, Tamil literature flourished during this period, with the rise of Bhakti saints and the compilation of hymns, such as Muvarula and Kamba Ramayanam. These works reflect the sociocultural features of the time. The Uttarameruru Inscription, issued by Pranthaka Chola, gives detailed insights into the elections for local self-governance bodies.

Political History of Chola Empire

After the Sangam Age, the Cholas were subordinate to the Pallavas in the Kaveri region. However, the Chola Empire re-emerged with Vijayalaya’s conquest of the Kaveri delta from the Muttaraiyar in 850 CE. He established the city of Thanjavur and laid the foundation for the Chola kingdom.

Vijayalaya’s successors, from Parantaka I to Kulothunga III, brought fame and glory to the empire. Parantaka Chola expanded the territory and established a strong governance base, though he faced defeat against the Rashtrakutas in the Battle of Takkolam.

Rajaraja I (985 – 1014 A.D.)

Rajaraja I, the most celebrated Chola king, led naval expeditions and achieved victories on the West Coast, in Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. His conquest of Sri Lanka brought its northern and eastern regions under Chola control, and he renamed the northern part as Mummidigonda Cholamandalam.

Rajaraja I also defeated the Cheras in the Battle of Kandanur Salai and succeeded in his expeditions against the Western and Eastern Chalukyas, installing Shaktiverma on the Vengi Throne. A devout follower of Saivism, he completed the construction of the Rajarajeswara temple (Brihadeeswara temple) at Tanjore in 1010 A.D. He held titles such as Mummidi Chola, Jayankonda, and Sivapadasekara. Eventually, he abdicated his throne for his son Rajendra Chola I.

Rajendra I (1012-1044 A.D.)

Rajendra I is known for his striking military achievements, including his 1023 expedition to northern India, where he defeated Mahipala I of Bengal. To commemorate this victory, Rajendra founded the city of Gangaikondacholapuram and built the Rajesvaram temple there.

Rajendra’s other notable ventures include his naval expedition to Kadaram (Sri Vijaya, now Indonesia), earning him the title Kadaramgonda. He annexed the entirety of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and established several educational institutes, for which he was titled Pandita Chola. After his death, his successors struggled, with three being killed in quick succession.

Kulothunga Chola I

Kulothunga Chola I, Rajendra’s grandson, preserved the legacy of the Cholas. He abolished many taxes and earned the title Sungam Tavirtta. Kulothunga also sent trade embassies to China and united the Vengi kingdom with the Chola Empire. He was a contemporary of the Bhakti saint Ramanujacharya.

Rajendra III

Rajendra III was the last Chola king, defeated by Jatavarman Sundarapandya II. After the decline of the Chola Empire, the Pandya and Hoysala kingdoms emerged.

Administration

The emperor or king stood at the top of the administration, holding all authority. The Chola rulers, such as Rajaraja I and Rajendra I, often toured their territories to maintain close contact with administration. Brahmins were appointed as spiritual preceptors or rajagurus.

The Chola Empire was divided into provinces called mandalams, further divided into valanadus and nadus. Royal princes or officers managed the mandalams, while local governance was handled by autonomous village assemblies known as ur and Sabha or Mahasabha, depending on the type of village.

The Cholas maintained a large military with infantry, cavalry, and elephants. For revenue, they conducted extensive land surveys and classified land for tax purposes. In addition to land revenue, there were various professional taxes, tolls, and customs on goods, as well as dues on ceremonial occasions and judicial fines.

Religion

The Chola rulers were ardent followers of Saivism, with Shiva being the preeminent god, represented in forms like Lingodhbhava and Nataraja. The period also saw the development of Saiva Siddhanta, a sophisticated philosophical system.

However, religious tension existed, particularly between Shaivites and Vaishnavites. Kulothunga Chola was known for persecuting Vaishnavites, leading Ramanujacharya to leave Srirangam and settle in Melkote, Karnataka.

Society

The Chola period saw the consolidation of Aryanisation and the beginning of Sanskritisation, where lower classes imitated upper-class traditions. The caste system was deeply entrenched, with society divided into “Idangai” and “Vadangai” groups. Serious conflicts arose between Shaivites and Vaishnavites.

The practice of sati became sacred, and the devadasi system, a new social evil, also emerged.

Literature

Tamil and Sanskrit literature flourished during the Chola period. Notable Tamil works include Kamban’s Ramayan, Sekkilar’s Periyapuranam, and Kalladam by Kalladanar. In Sanskrit, Kesava Swami composed Nannaranava Samkshevam.

Architecture

Chola architecture, especially temple construction, reached its peak during this period. The Cholas followed the Dravidian style, which evolved from the Pallavas, with improvements such as using stone instead of brick. Temples like Brihadeswara and Vijayalaya exemplify this architectural style.

Brihadeswara Temple

Built by RajaRaja Chola, the Brihadeswara Temple in Tanjavur stands as a masterpiece of Chola architecture, painting, sculpture, and iconography. The temple’s vimana is shadowless, and its sanctum is topped with an 80-ton stone. The temple’s frescoes and miniature sculptures depict scenes from puranas and epics.

Gangaikonda Cholapuram

Rajendra I built Gangaikonda Cholapuram to commemorate his victory in North India, modelling it after Brihadeswara Temple.

Darasuram Temple

Constructed by Rajaraja II, Darasuram Temple is another testament to Chola architecture.

Chola Bronze Sculptures

The Cholas mastered the cire-perdu (lost-wax) process for bronze casting, a technique known since the Indus Valley Civilization. Chola bronzes, especially the Nataraja figure of Shiva, are highly prized by art collectors worldwide. The Thanjavur region became renowned for its Shiva iconography, including the Ardhanarisvara Murti, which ingeniously represents the union of Shiva and Parvati in a single image.