Prehistoric periods in India are categorized into various stages based on the tools used by its people. These periods form the foundation of ancient history and are crucial for the UPSC Civil Services Exam and other competitive examinations where questions on ancient history are asked. These periods are:

1. Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age): 500,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE
2. Mesolithic Period (Late Stone Age): 10,000 BCE – 6,000 BCE
3. Neolithic Period (New Stone Age): 6,000 BCE – 1,000 BCE
4. Chalcolithic Period (Stone Copper Age): 3,000 BCE – 500 BCE
5. Iron Age: 1,500 BCE – 200 BCE

Stone Age Overview

The Stone Age marks a time before written records, with archaeological evidence being our primary source of information. Robert Bruce Foote, a notable archaeologist, discovered India’s first Paleolithic tool, the Pallavaram handaxe.

The Indian Stone Age is divided into three primary periods:

1. Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age): 500,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE
2. Mesolithic Age (Late Stone Age): 10,000 BCE – 6,000 BCE
3. Neolithic Age (New Stone Age): 6,000 BCE – 1,000 BCE

Paleolithic Age (Old Stone Age) : Prehistoric Periods in India

The term ‘Paleolithic’ comes from the Greek words ‘palaeo’ (old) and ‘lithic’ (stone), referring to the ‘Old Stone Age.’ This era corresponds with the Pleistocene epoch, known for its icy conditions. Despite the cold, the tropical regions allowed the earliest human species to thrive.

Characteristics:

• People and Habitats: Early inhabitants, believed to be from the ‘Negrito’ race, lived in open areas, river valleys, caves, and rock shelters. Their lifestyle was predominantly based on hunting and gathering wild fruits and vegetables.
• Tools: They used unpolished, rough stone tools such as hand axes, choppers, blades, burins, and scrapers. The tools were primarily made from quartzite, giving rise to the term ‘Quartzite Men.’
• Art: In the Upper Paleolithic phase, evidence of art, including paintings, emerged.

Phases of the Paleolithic Age:

• Lower Paleolithic Age (up to 100,000 BCE): Characterized by heavy, rough tools like hand axes and cleavers. Notable sites include Bori in Maharashtra and the Soan Valley.
• Middle Paleolithic Age (100,000 BCE – 40,000 BCE): Tools became smaller and lighter, including flakes, blades, and scrapers. Important sites are the Belan Valley, Luni Valley, and Bhimbetka.
• Upper Paleolithic Age (40,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE): This period saw a warmer climate and the emergence of Homo sapiens. Tools included bone implements and innovative stone tools. Significant sites include Bhimbetka, the Chota Nagpur plateau, and the Eastern Ghats.

Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age): Prehistoric Periods in India

The term ‘Mesolithic’ derives from Greek words ‘meso’ (middle) and ‘lithic’ (stone), referring to the ‘Middle Stone Age.’ This period falls within the Holocene era, marked by rising temperatures, which led to the melting of ice and changes in flora and fauna.

Characteristics:

• Lifestyle: Early Mesolithic people engaged in hunting, fishing, and food gathering, later transitioning to animal domestication and agriculture. The first domesticated animal was the dog, followed by sheep and goats.
• Tools: Microliths—small, geometric stone tools—were used, which were often hafted onto wooden or bone handles.
• Settlements: They lived in semi-permanent settlements, caves, and open grounds. Burial practices included placing food and goods with the deceased, indicating beliefs in an afterlife.
• Art: Rock art featuring animals, hunting scenes, and dancing was prevalent.

Notable Sites:

• Bagor (Rajasthan): Known for its microliths and animal bones.
• Adamgarh (Madhya Pradesh): Provides early evidence of animal domestication.
• Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh) and other sites like Kharwar, Sundargarh, and Langhnaj.

Neolithic Period (New Stone Age): Prehistoric Periods in India

The term ‘Neolithic’ comes from the Greek ‘neo’ (new) and ‘lithic’ (stone), signifying the ‘New Stone Age’ or the ‘Neolithic Revolution,’ a time of significant social and economic change.

Characteristics:

• Tools and Weapons: Tools included polished stone blades and ground hand axes, alongside bone implements like needles and scrapers.
• Agriculture: This period saw the advent of farming, with cultivation of cereals like ragi and horse gram, and domestication of cattle, sheep, and goats.
• Pottery: The Neolithic era is marked by the development of pottery, including greyware and black-burnished ware, with advancements from handmade to wheel-turned pots.
• Housing: Settlements featured rectangular or circular mud-brick houses. Neolithic people also engaged in spinning, weaving, and boat-making.

Important Sites:

• Mehrgarh (Balochistan, Pakistan): The earliest Neolithic site with evidence of brick houses and early crop cultivation.
• Koldihwa and Mahagara (U.P.): Known for circular huts and the oldest rice evidence.
• Burzahom and Gufkral (Kashmir): Notable for pit dwellings and burial practices.
• Chirand (Bihar): Recognized for its bone tools.

Chalcolithic Period (Stone Copper Age): Prehistoric Periods in India

The Chalcolithic Age saw the integration of metal with stone tools, with copper being the first metal used.

Characteristics:

• Agriculture and Cattle Rearing: Domestication of animals and cultivation of grains like wheat, rice, and bajra. They also produced pulses and cotton.
• Pottery: This era featured black and red pottery, often with wheel-turned designs and ochre-colored pottery.
• Settlements: Characterized by rural settlements with mud-brick houses. Social inequalities began to appear, with distinctions in housing size and types.
• Art and Craft: Skilled in copper smelting and stone working. Jewellery included ornaments made from shells, bones, and semi-precious stones.
• Worship: Evidence of veneration for deities, including clay images of earth goddesses.

Important Sites:

• Ahar and Gilund (Rajasthan): Known for copper tools and stone blade industries.
• Daimabad (Maharashtra): Famous for bronze artifacts and large settlements.
• Malwa and Kayatha (Madhya Pradesh): Sites with rich ceramics and pre-Harappan pottery.
• Chirand and Nasik: Important for Chalcolithic settlements and tools.

Iron Age: Prehistoric Periods in India

The Iron Age marks a transition to more advanced tool-making and the development of early civilizations, including the arrival of the Aryans and the emergence of Vedic culture. It also saw the rise of Jainism, Buddhism, and the formation of Mahajanapadas along the Ganges River, marking significant progress in Indian history.

For aspirants preparing for competitive exams like the IAS, a detailed understanding of these prehistoric periods is crucial. The information aligns with the UPSC syllabus for both prelims and mains examinations.